The LIUniverse with Dr. Charles Liu

• Half-Baked Stars and Handmade Macarons with Dr. Theron Carmichael

  What is a transiting brown dwarf, why are they so rare, and how do you find them? Equally important, how do you make a good French macaron? To find out, Dr. Charles Liu and co-host Allen Liu welcome astronomer and astrophysicist Dr. Theron Carmichael. As always, though, we start off with the day’s joyfully cool cosmic thing: a recent paper in the Astrophysical Journal possibly linking a supernova that took place millions of years ago and bombarded Earth with cosmic rays and radioactive iron with a flurry of virus mutation that took place in deep ancient lakes on our planet. After Theron brings up the Chicxulub meteor impact (the one that spelled trouble for dinosaurs) and how astronomical events can affect the evolution of life here on Earth, we naturally turn to the effects of extreme radiation events and… the mighty Marvel mutants themselves, the X-Men! Then it’s time to talk about Dr. Carmichael’s bread and butter: detecting and categorizing transiting brown dwarfs, an exceedingly rare form of the “failed stars” which actually orbit other stars. Theron explains that while we know how stars and planets form, we don’t exactly understand the formation of brown dwarfs, which exist in the gray region between a star and a planet. Allen reminds us how protoplanetary discs form, while Theron points out that the distinctions may not be as clear as we used to think. Our first student question comes from Ani, who asks, “There are a lot more small, faint stars than big bright stars. Does that mean there are a huge number of brown dwarfs in the galaxy?” Yes, according to Dr. Carmichael. And not only are there more of them, but Theron explains that they last longer, too. Finding them is challenging, but it’s become easier thanks to TESS, the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite mission that’s been running for over 7 years, well past its operational lifespan. Our next student question comes from Josie, who asks, “Could there be life on brown dwarfs?” While brown dwarfs are colder than stars, they are still too hot to form and sustain the molecules we believe are necessary for life. And while those molecules are in fact present in the atmosphere of brown dwarfs – along with titanium oxide clouds – the pressure and temperature conditions of brown dwarfs make life as we know it unlikely. Theron explains that the atmospheric conditions of brown dwarfs are not dissimilar to Jupiter, as opposed to those on Jovian moons like Europa that we’re going to explore when the Europa Clipper reaches its destination in 2030. After that, Theron tells us about the annual MIT Mystery Hunt, his long-time love of baking, and the astronomical value of macarons. (For his French macaron recipe, please visit our Patreon page.) Allen shares how he has made cookies conforming to the Einstein tile, and Charles mentions a few scientists who also love to bake. Theron explains how baking and brown dwarf research use the same parts of his brain. We even get to see a video clip of him making macarons! To end the show, Theron tells us about the international working group he helps lead focused on learning more about transiting brown dwarfs. If you’d like to know more about Dr. Theron Carmichael, you can follow him on Twitter/X @TherBaer or his website, www.theroncarmichael.com. We hope you enjoy this episode of The LIUniverse, and, if you do, please support us on Patreon. Credits for Images Used in this Episode: Chicxulub impact 65 million years ago – Illustration credit: Lunar Planetary Institute/David King. Rendering representing the size of a Brown Dwarf compared to other celestials. – Illustration credit: NASA/ JPL-Caltech/ UCB. Planets forming around a young star – a protoplanetary disc. – Credit: NRAO/AUI/NSF. Illustration of the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) mission. – Credit: NASA. Rendering of Europa Clipper as it orbits Jupiter. – Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech. Animation showing the orbit of the TESS telescope relative to the Earth and the Moon. – Credit: NASA Scientific Visualization Studio. Einstein Tile - a play on the German phrase "ein stein' or "one stone." – Credit: Creative Commons/University of Waterloo/David Smith, Joseph Samuel Myers, Craig S. Kaplan, Chaim Goodman-Strauss. Video of Dr. Carmichael making macarons. – Credit: Theron Carmichael. #TheLIUniverse #CharlesLiu #AllenLiu #SciencePodcast #AstronomyPodcast #TheronCarmichael #Chicxulubmeteor #BrownDwarf #protoplanetarydisc #TESS #EuropaClipper #exoplanets #EinsteinTile #macaron #failedstars #Jupiter #Europa #MITMysteryHunt

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  37:22
• Cold Wars, AI, and Art for Aliens with Rebecca Charbonneau

  What can the history of science tell us about the world we live in today and where we might be headed tomorrow? To find out, Dr. Charles Liu and co-host Allen Liu welcome historian of science Rebecca Charbonneau, PhD from the American Institute of Physics and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory with expertise in radio astronomy and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). This episode kicks off with Allen and Chuck talking about January’s Lunar Occultation of Mars. You can see a photo taken by Chuck on our YouTube Community tab. And then it’s time for today’s joyfully cool cosmic thing: a recent paper in the Astrophysical Journal Letters confirming there are galaxies that were fully formed just 400 million years after The Big Bang. Chuck, who studies galactic evolution, tells us why this changes our understanding of galaxy formation. Rebecca talks about how new ideas can be controversial and how personalities, politics and cultures can impact the evolution of science. She brings up the current controversy in astronomy concerning the locations of terrestrial telescopes and the tension between scientific and cultural imperatives. She also recounts seeing people in Russia wearing NASA t-shirts and explains how NASA understood the importance of controlling the narrative, even inviting Norman Rockwell to popularize the space program. Our first question comes from Pablo P. on Patreon, who asks, “Can humanity be destroyed by AI powered by quantum computing?” Rebecca explains how during the Cold War, scientists on both sides engaged in “science diplomacy” that helped lower tensions. She applies this thinking to AI, pointing out that while a “Terminator-like” scenario is unlikely, public concern is causing the tech world to confront and grapple with real threats from AI like biases in hiring algorithms. Allen, a mathematician who writes about AI professionally, addresses whether AI powered by quantum computing is more dangerous than AI in general. Rebecca shares the terrifying story of a Soviet nuclear submarine and the US navy during the Cuban Missile Crisis that nearly started a nuclear war. The dissenting actions of a single officer named Vasily Arkhipov made the difference, and she wonders if AI would have made the same decision based on the available data. For our next question, we return to our Pablo P. from Patreon for his follow up: “How [do] we answer the question about whether or not we are engaging in self-destructive behavior?” Chuck and Rebecca discuss the confluence of astronomy and the military, and how the history of the SETI program highlights their shared concerns. You’ll find out what the Drake Equation has to do with concepts like The Great Filter. Science, she reminds us, is a tool to try to get closer to the truth, but it’s not always perfect in pointing out whether what we’re doing is safe or potentially self-destructive. Then we turn to Rebecca’s other big passion, art history and the window into the human experience that art provides. Charles brings up The Scream by Edvard Munch and the fact that it’s actually a depiction of a real atmospheric event. Rebecca talks the use of fractal studies to determine the authenticity of Jackson Pollock art. She also explores the artistic value of scientific artifacts like the controversial plaque attached to Pioneer 10 depicting a naked man and woman, and the interstellar Arecibo Message, sent by Frank Drake in 1974. You’ll even hear how Frank worked himself into the message and what that has to do with Albrecht Durer’s self-portrait painted in the year 1500. Finally, we turn to what Rebecca’s been up to recently. Her new book Mixed Signals came out in January of this year. Keep up with her on her website at and follow her on X @rebecca_charbon and on BlueSky @rebeccacharbon.bsky.social. We hope you enjoy this episode of The LIUniverse, and, if you do, please support us on Patreon. Credits for Images Used in this Episode: A young Milky Way-like galaxy and a background quasar 12 billion and 12.5 billion light-years away, respectively. – Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), M. Neeleman & J. Xavier Prochaska; Keck Observatory Artist’s concept of a high red-shift galaxy. – Credit: Alexandra Angelich (NRAO/AUI/NSF) John Young and Gus Grissom are suited for the first Gemini flight March 1965. Norman Rockwell, 1965. – Credit: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum / Norman Rockwell Edvard Munch, 1893, The Scream. – Credit: Edvard Munch / National Gallery of Norway (Public Domain) Fractal study of Jackson Pollock art. – Credit: “Perceptual and physiological responses to Jackson Pollock’s fractals,” R. Taylor, et al, Front. Hum. Neurosci., 21 June 2011. The Arecibo message. – Credit: Creative Commons NASA image of Pioneer 10's famed Pioneer plaque. – Credit: NASA Albrecht Durer self-portrait. – Credit: Albrecht Dürer - Alte Pinakothek (Public Domain)

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  41:26
• Megamasers and Magnetic Fields with Dr. Jackie Villadsen

  What’s the difference between a maser and a megamaser? How does uncertainty lead science to its newest discoveries? To find out, Dr. Charles Liu and co-host Allen Liu welcome back radio astronomer Dr. Jackie Villadsen, a professor at Bucknell University currently researching star/planet magnetic interaction in exoplanet systems. As always, though, we start off with the day’s joyfully cool cosmic thing. In November 2024 a group of researchers announced that they’d found a series of megamasers around the supermassive black hole system NGC1068, and that for the first time ever, they’d measured the polarization of the water megamasers. Jackie, who studies a different kind of maser, explains what they are (“just a really, really big laser pointer in space that shoots out radio waves or microwaves”) and why they’re important. Jackie studies masers around nearby stars, which are much smaller than megamasers that can be seen from other galaxies. Allen shares the fact that some megamasers can be around half a parsec (trillions of miles) across and bigger than our entire solar system. Then it’s time for our first question for Jackie. It’s from Guadalupe, who says, “I recall reading or watching a video that stated there is liquid on Mars beneath an "ice cap" - is that right?” According to Dr. Villadsen, the question is right on the cutting edge of our understanding, with promising evidence emerging right now that suggests the answer might be yes, although more investigation is necessary before we can confirm it. After our break, Jackie tells us about the research she’s doing using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) while on her current sabbatical. You’ll hear about Karl Jansky’s breakthrough discovery of radio waves from space made nearly 100 years ago. Jackie brings us up to speed on the evolution of radio astronomy and why we’re able to get more data than ever out of the same telescopes. Our next question comes from Bryant: “What do you think would have happened if the universe was created a bit earlier than usual? Would anything have changed?” It turns out, there’s more than one way to look at this speculative question, and Jackie and Chuck ponder the possibility of having miscalculated the age of the universe and the impact that an older universe would have on the rate of universal expansion, the perception of dark energy, and more. Next up, Jackie tells us about the research she and her colleagues (including grad students!) have been involved with looking for star/planet magnetic interaction in nearby exoplanet systems. The search is inspired by the interaction in our solar system between the magnetic field of Jupiter and two of its closest moons, Io and Ganymede. While there are no confirmed examples yet, they already have one candidate out of the seven exoplanet systems they’ve studied. Our next question comes from Samuel, who asks, “As an astrophysics professor, how is the work-life balance and overall lifestyle of a researcher? My dream is to become a mechanical engineer in the field of astrophysics.” Jackie explains how she approaches work, and what it took to reach the balanced state she’s in now compared to when she was a grad student. We end the episode with another of Jackie’s book recommendations. Last time she was here she recommended the adult sci-fi romance, “The Ladies Guide to Celestial Mechanics” by Olivia Waite. This time, it’s another adult sci-fi romance with a bit of a mystery woven through it, “The Stars Too Fondly” by Emily Hamilton. The title is taken from a poem, “The Old Astronomer to His Pupil” by Sarah Williams, from which Jackie reads a snippet. She and Chuck also discuss one of their favorite poems, “The Learned Astronomer,” by Walt Whitman, found in his collection, “Leaves of Grass.” We hope you enjoy this episode of The LIUniverse, and, if you do, please support us on Patreon. Credits for Images Used in this Episode: Radar sounding of Mars subsurface - Cross-section of a portion of the north polar ice cap of Mars, derived from satellite radar sounding – Mars Express/ESA Martian north polar cap as it appeared to the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) in early northern summer. – Credit: NASA/JPL/MSSS The Very Large Array (VLA). – Credit: NRAO/AUI/NSF Very Large Array, pictured with meteor. – Credit: Bettymaya Foott, NRAO/AUI/NSF Animation of Jupiter’s magnetosphere. – Credit: NASA Animation of Jupiter’s aurora. – Credit: NASA/Hubble #theliuniverse #charlesliu #allenliu #sciencepodcast #astronomypodcast #jackievilladsen #maser #megamaser #vla #verylargearray #exoplanets #jupiter #magneticfield #magnetosphere #aurora #wateronmars #blackholes #adultscifi #romance #thestarstoofondly #emilyhamilton #theoldastronomertohispupil #sarahwilliams #thelearnedastronomer #waltwhitman #leavesofgrass

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  50:25
• A Scintillating Cosmic Conversation with Robert Sparks

  Have you ever wondered how data from the telescopes that peer into our universe ends up in the hands of the astronomers who interpret it? To find out, Dr. Charles Liu and co-host Allen Liu welcome Robert Sparks, currently from the NSF’s NOIRLab, but previously Fermi Lab and the Sloan Sky Survey. The National Optical InfraRed Astronomy Research Lab is responsible for operating the National Science Foundation’s ground based, nighttime optical and near infrared astronomy for the United States. Robert describes their Community Science Data Center which ties all the data from all their telescopes together to make it available for astronomers around the world to use in their research. As always, though, we start off with the day’s joyfully cool cosmic thing, a project coming out of NOIRLab called 88 Constellations. Robert, who spearheaded the project, explains how the final, incredibly detailed image combined classic constellations and new, modern additions and covered the entire sky. One of his favorite parts of the project? Learning about the constellations in the southern hemisphere that doesn’t get to see that often, like the Southern Cross. Chuck, Allen and Robert share some of their experiences stargazing down below, and yes, you know Chuck takes the opportunity to sing us a little Crosby, Stills and Nash! You’ll also hear which constellation is the smallest in the southern hemisphere, Crux (the Southern Cross) or Delphinus. Then it’s on to audience questions. Our first comes from Amirah, who asks, “Blue stars are hotter than red stars, so does that mean blue light bulbs are hotter than red light bulbs? Why would something's color matter about how hot something is?” The short answer: yes (pre-LED, that is!) Robert’s long answer involves black body radiation, the electromagnetic spectrum, and red giant carbon stars. Rob shares stories from a career that bridges astronomy and particle physics, including how he got his hands on some original scintillator material from particle detectors at Fermi Lab. (Check out The LIUniverse on Patreon for a scintillating deep dive into…well, scintillation!) The next audience question, from Bryan, is particularly relevant to the discussion: How do astronomy and physics work together? In many, ways, as Robert and Chuck explain. Allen shares the story of the discovery of the element Helium, which was first discovered in the Sun by astronomers, hence its name. You’ll also get to hear about Robert’s 38-year-long career in improv comedy – and get to watch him (and his cat) act out scenes prompted by Chuck. Finally, we’ve got one last audience question from Jerry, who says, “I live really far away from the city and I don't have a telescope. What's the best way for me to do astronomy research?” Robert, who grew up in Iowa, tells Jerry about citizen science astronomy projects he can get involved like those at The Zooniverse. You’ll hear about how, while working at a program there known as the Galaxy Zoo, a Dutch schoolteacher named Hanny Van Arkel discovered a weird light echo from a quasar that is now known as “Hanny’s Voorwep” (Hanny’s Object).   If you’d like to find out more about NOIRLab, the National Optical InfraRed Astronomy Research Lab, check out their website. To keep up with Robert Sparks, you can follow him @halfastro on Bluesky, Threads, Flikr, and Instagram. We hope you enjoy this episode of The LIUniverse, and, if you do, please support us on Patreon.   Credits for Images Used in this Episode: Mauna Kea observatories in Hawaii – Credit: Wikicommons/Alan L. Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) in Arizona. – Credit: KPNO/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/T. Slovinský 3-D view of the largest structures in the Universe via data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. – Credit: NASA/University of Chicago and Adler Planetarium and Astronomy Museum 88 Constellation sky-scape video compiled using images from the best and darkest locations around the globe: Germany (Waldenburg), Spain (Tenerife, La Palma), Namibia and Chile. – Credit: NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/E. Slawik/M. Zamani The constellation Crux (Southern Cross) – Credit: E. Slawik/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/M. Zamani The constellation Delphinus – Credit: E. Slawik/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/M. Zamani Illustration of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy, highlighting the portions detected by NASA’s Hubble, Spitzer, and Webb space telescopes – Credit NASA Event captured by the Super Kamiokande detector – Credit: Tomasz Barszczak/Super-Kamiokande collaboration Visualization of two colliding galaxies that merge into a single elliptical galaxy over a period spanning two billion years – Credits: NCSA, NASA, B. Robertson, L. Hernquist Helium spectral lines which appear in the visible spectrum at about 400-700 nanometers. – Credit: Creative Commons/ McZusatz Hanny’s Voorwep, A Space Oddity – Credit: NASA, ESA, W. Keel (University of Alabama), and the Galaxy Zoo Team   #TheLIUniverse #CharlesLiu #AllenLiu #SciencePodcast #AstronomyPodcast  #NOIRLab #NSF #FermiLab #SloanDigitalSkySurvey #88Constellations #GalaxyZoo #TheZooniverse #blackbodyradiation #electromagneticspectrum #redgiants #carbonstars #particlephysics #scintillatormaterial #particledetectors #scintillation #HannysVoorwep

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  40:19
• Comets, Eclipses and Auroras: The LIUniverse Looks Back at 2024

  What were the coolest science and sci-fi events in the LIUniverse in 2024, and what’s in store for us in 2025? To find out, Dr. Charles Liu and co-host Allen Liu welcome three members of our production team: Leslie Mullen, our Executive Producer making her first on air appearance, Jon Barnes, our Editor, and Stacey Severn, our Social Media/Patreon Community Director, both of whom are familiar to longtime fans. But first, as always, we start with the day’s joyfully cool cosmic thing: the latest development in the dispute that astrophysicists call the “Hubble Tension.” Over the past 20 years, the two different methods of measuring the Hubble Constant, which is used to calculate the rate of universal expansion, have led to two different conclusions. Leslie points out that the universe isn’t confused, we are, leading to a conversation about why accurate measurements matter in helping us expand our limited understanding. Then we begin our look back at the year in astronomy – or rather, our look up. Stacey takes us on a tour, from a Geminid meteor hitting the moon, to the spectacular aurora borealis visible in the Northeastern US, to Comet C/2023 A3 Tsuchinshan-ATLAS, to, of course, the Great North American Eclipse. The team share their viewing experiences while Chuck explains the impact of solar max on both the eclipse and the auroras. Next, Jon Barnes is back to talk about “The Three-Body Problem” science fiction series on Netflix. He asks Chuck to explain what we really know about cosmic particles (aka cosmic rays), because, in the series, the aliens use sophons, a supercomputer combined with a photon, to communicate across long distances at or near the speed of light. You’ll also hear about the recent detection of a surprisingly large number of very high energy cosmic rays that are hitting us right now. Our fan question comes from Pshemo on Patreon and concerns an experiment to measure the dynamics of a local system relative to spacetime by using light as a way of gauging the background nature of the universe. And if you think that sounds pretty geeky, it’s nothing compared to the conversation between Allen, Chuck and Leslie that ensues, encompassing Einstein, the Michelson–Morley experiment, gravitational waves, LIGO, Virgo, KAGRA, and LISA. There’s plenty more in this episode, including a discussion of the recent wave of drone sightings, their similarity to the past UFO sightings, and the likelihood that they are all explained by less exotic causes than aliens. Moving on to the coolest “identified flying objects” of 2024, Leslie tells us about the Europa Clipper, which launched in October. It will reach orbit around Jupiter in 6 years in order to search for alien life in the subsurface oceans of its icy moon Europa. Chuck reminds us all that NASA’s Parker Solar Probe will make its closest approach to our Sun on Christmas Eve 2024. Finally, it’s time for the team to share what they’re looking forward to in 2025. Jon is psyched for “Mickey 17,” a film by director Bong Joon-ho about a clone on a space colony. Allen is excited for Rocket Lab’s Venus Life Finder, the first private interplanetary space probe, which launches in January to search for organic compounds within Venus' atmosphere. Stacey is looking forward to Axiom Space’s fourth mission to the ISS in 2025, an international trip to conduct scientific experiments commanded again by Peggy Whitson. Leslie is most excited for the discovery nobody is expecting, whatever that may be. And what is Chuck looking forward to most in 2025? The long-awaited start of scientific operations at the Vera Rubin Observatory, which will take a full picture of the sky every 30 seconds for ten years and deliver an unprecedented level of data for astronomers to feast upon! We hope you enjoy this episode of The LIUniverse, and, if you do, please support us on Patreon.   Credits for Images Used in this Episode: Illustration of the Hubble constant – NASA/ESA/StSci, Public Domain Gianluca Lombardi Geminid meteor shower video podcast – ESO, Public Domain Northern Lights over the Northeastern US in 2024. – Elliot Severn, All Rights Reserved Northern Lights over the Northeastern US in 2024. – Allen Liu, All Rights Reserved Comet C/2023 A3 Tsuchinshan-ATLAS – Elliot Severn, All Rights Reserved Map showing total solar eclipse viewing in US in 2017 and 2024. – Ernest Wright/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio, Public Domain Total solar eclipse, April 8, 2024. – Elliot Severn, All Rights Reserved How LIGO achieves steadiness – Caltech/MIT/LIGO Lab, Public Domain Europa Clipper construction – NASA/JPL, Public Domain Artist rendering of Europa Clipper traveling to Jupiter – NASA/JPL, Public Domain Artist concept of the Casini spacecraft flying through the water/ice plumes of Enceladus – NASA/JPL, Public Domain Artist concept of NASA’s Parker Solar Probe flying close to the Sun. – NASA, Public Domain

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  1:00:59

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